The paragraphs of the introduction should be presented in a logical order, i. Remember, most people reading a scientific paper will only read the Introduction and Discussion, so the account of your discovery should be complete and complementary between these two sections. Normally, you will tell the reader about the larger projects if any that led to the discovery of the new species, provide information on its ecological niche and associated organisms, and give references to complementary publications where appropriate.
Information should be provided about the taxonomy of genus in which the species is being described, such as the number of species already known, a brief review of recent revisions or monographs, perhaps discussion of controversies about the generic concept, and something about the biology of the species.
Be diligent about citing all relevant literature. If you have DNA sequence data, usually one paragraph will provide a brief review of the existing state of molecular knowledge for the group your species belongs to, and explain to the reader what experiments you have done with your own species to fit it into the existing context. Another paragraph gives information about why the new species is suspected to be undescribed.
This should be basic information that leads into the formal part of the paper. Some of this information may be repeated and presented in more detail in the discussion. Some papers may require a longer introduction. Manuscripts including molecular or physiological data are often longer. Situations where the new fungus could be described in one of several different genera also may require a longer introduction.
Sometimes this will include a more extensive review of historical literature, or discussions of taxonomic characters of particular significance. You must judge whether this information is most suitable in the introduction, which the reader will read before the description itself, or if it is more logical to place it in the discussion.
This section is often omitted from taxonomic papers that include only morphological data, but it is preferable to include as many details as possible. Some of the following subheadings and paragraphs might be appropriate. How the specimens were collected and transported to the laboratory and preserved or incubated prior to examination may be relevant. Give recipes for the isolation media employed, or cite a reference for the media.
Give brand names for extracts used, such as malt extract, yeast extract, and the agar used for the media. Describe the inoculation methods, incubation conditions such as temperature and lighting regime, and length of incubation before examination. Determine the cardinal growth temperatures minimum, optimum and maximum if possible. List the culture collections where the cultures are maintained, with accession numbers, either here or in a table. Explain all isolation methods used, such as explants from sporophores or infected host tissues, removal of spores directly from sporulating structures, transfer of actively discharged spores from Petri dish lids or spore prints, etc.
If the substrate was treated before isolation, e. Give the recipes for the isolation media employed including any antibacterial compound added, or cite a reference for those media. Describe the incubation conditions such as temperature and lighting conditions.
If single-spore cultures were prepared, a good practice to be undertaken when possible Choi , Crous , describe how this was done. Give details of the kind of microscope used, including the illumination systems e.
A similar section, with details on dehydration protocols, fixation, staining, etc. Permanent microscopic preparations should be deposited with the type if possible, which will make your observations reproducible to later taxonomists, and limit the amount of material they might use on specimens in future studies.
Techniques used for illustrations are often given here, but may also be briefly mentioned in the figure legends. For example, whether drawings were made with a drawing tube, a camera lucida, or by freehand, and the type of camera used for photography, may be relevant.
It is essential to describe techniques used for image enhancement of digital photographs, such as the sharpening filters of PhotoShop or other imaging software, whether separate photographs were combined into one image, or whether colours have been altered Microscopy Society of America, Modification of contrast has always been standard practice in photography and need not be mentioned.
For yeasts, substrate utilization and other physiological tests are standard parts of taxonomic descriptions. For some lichen groups, spot-tests with a standard set of chemical reagents are essential. These methods must be described carefully. If chemotaxonomic methods, such as isozyme analysis or secondary metabolite profiling, were employed, complete methods should be given to allow the resulting data to be reproduced.
Note what kind of material was used for DNA extraction, such as cultures, single spores, or naturally occurring tissues, and give the details of the kits and methods used for DNA extraction. For DNA isolations from natural tissues, note whether procedures were repeated to reduce the chance of sequencing a contaminant or associated organism.
Give the details of PCR amplification profile used, the concentrations of reagents used in the reactions, and information on the brand and model of thermocycler used.
Provide details of any methods used to clean or otherwise process the PCR products before sequencing. If PCR products or other DNA fragments were cloned for sequencing, provide the relevant information for this procedure. For the DNA sequencing, provide details of the cycle sequencing profile used, the concentration of reagents used, the brand and model of the thermocycler, the relevant information about the sequencing chemistry used, and the brand and model of DNA sequencer employed.
If you used a DNA sequencing service, list it here. Cite the literature where PCR and sequencing primers were first published. If you designed the primers yourself, give details of how you did this.
Include details about how you did your phylogenetic analyses, including literature citations for sequences originating from published or unpublished work of colleagues, the software used for analysis, and the details of the parameters used for the analysis. Diverse methods of phylogenetic analysis are available. If you have used several sequences from a previously published study, you should cite that study so that it is properly credited Seifert et al.
Many descriptions of new species will not have a Results section because all of the data are included in the Taxonomy section. However, if some experiments were done with the fungus, such as physiological tests or tests of antibiotic resistance, then these data should be presented in the Results section, in the same order as the methods are described in the Materials and Methods section.
Often, the results of physiological tests are given in a Table. General results of DNA sequencing analyses are usually given in this section. These can include details of the length and composition of the DNA fragments, and the results of comparisons with other sequences e.
BLAST searches. If phylogenetic trees are presented, the tree statistics may be given in this section, or otherwise in the figure legends. Describe what the data shows, e. Mention support values for the critical nodes in your tree based on bootstrap frequencies or other measures of confidence. If you have done analyses using different phylogenetic methods, or have analyzed several genes, then comparison of the results is appropriate here, but leave the conclusions for the Discussion section.
Genus species Authors Footnote 1 , sp. The Latin diagnosis comes first and is essential for valid publication. It should list the diagnostic characters only, i. Many journals now restrict the Latin to a few lines. Use published Latin diagnoses for models, then if possible have yours checked by a mycologist or botanist competent in scientific Latin. If there is no such expert in your own department, consult with colleagues in other institutions.
Holotypus: Collection acronym, accession number. Immediately after the Latin diagnosis, clearly and explicitly indicate the details of the single accession that will serve as holotype. If you wish to list isotypes or extype cultures here, be certain that they are clearly distinguished from the holotype or you may have problems with the validity of your new name Art. A full description follows. Think of the descriptions and illustrations together as providing a blue-print for your new species.
If someone wanted to build an exact scale-model of the fungus, they should be able to do so using your paper. Where both asexual and sexual states i. In general, a taxonomic description begins at the broadest scale and moves towards the finest.
Macroscopic characters are described next. Most details will be visual, but sometimes texture and odour are useful additions. When describing microscopic characters, be as complete as possible about shape, colour, texture and size for every component of the fungus. Be aware that the terminology for describing three dimensional shapes sometimes differs from the terminology used to describe two dimensional shapes. The full range of observed dimensions should be given for all structures.
Means should be calculated for all dimensions in the description at least the spores , along with a statistical measure of variation in these measurements, such as standard error, standard deviation, confidence intervals or percentile ranges. If you have isolated a culture, its features are usually included in a separate paragraph. For some fungi, colony characters are described first; for others, this information follows the morphological description. At a minimum, give the growth rates on a specified medium and explain the temperature and light regime, and give a general impression of the colour and texture of the colonies.
If the fungus sporulates in culture, it can be very helpful to compare the sizes and shapes of the microscopic structures to what occurred on the natural specimen. The detail employed in culture descriptions varies considerably from one taxonomic group to another, and you should consult published descriptions for the group you are working with.
If you have done any physiological tests, or determined cardinal temperatures, this information is normally put in a separate paragraph in the description. It can also be put into a table or in a graph, which may be easier for a reader to follow. Substrate or Host : Provide a summary of the known hosts or substrates as a separate paragraph, especially if you have more than one specimen. Distribution : Summarize the known disttibution, by continent, country and by province or state for larger countries , along with relevant information on the biome, climactic or geological conditions.
Etymology : Explain the meaning or derivation of the species epithet, and note the language of origin of the word s used for constructing the epithet. Avoid species epithets with more than five syllables and those similar to other epithets in the same genus. Epithets that are descriptive are most helpful, but names can be derived from any source, including acronyms or the name of a person, usually someone involved in the discovery of the fungus or a mycologist who has made a significant contribution to the subject.
Additional material examined : Most journals have a specific format for this part of the paper. Often, some of this information is instead provided in a table including GenBank accession numbers for DNA sequences. The discussion completes the story that began in the Introduction. Mixing of the Results and Discussion in one section is generally frustrating for the reader, unless the section is very short.
It is often useful to start the Discussion by summarizing the diagnostic features of the fungus you have described. In a separate paragraph, you should compare your fungus to other similar species of the same genus, stating clearly how they differ. Many papers will include either a diagnostic key or synoptic table or both , either including all species of a smaller genus, or only the most similar species of a larger genus, to assist the reader in understanding why the new species is distinct.
If you have DNA sequence data, there are often several paragraphs of discussion relating to what they show or do not show. Discuss how the data support the classification of your fungus and its recognition as a distinct species. If you have done analyses using different phylogenetic methods, or have analyzed several genes, compare the results and explain your conclusions carefully, especially if contradictory evidence occurs in the different data sets or analyses.
It is often useful to conclude the paper with discussion of the biology of the new species, either demonstrated by the experiments done in the paper or as an extension of field observations. VII Binary combination VII Combinatio nova App. VII Combination 6. VII Correct name 6. VII Conserved name App. VII Correct name App. VII Cultivar App. VII Date of name VII Description App.
VII Desctiptive name App. VII Designation App. VII Diagnosis VII Duplicate 8. VII Effective publication 6. VII Epithet 6. VII Epitype 9. VII Exsicca App. VII Ex-type, ex-holotype, ex-isotype 8B. VII Final epithet VII Forma specialis 4. VII Form-taxon App. VII Fossil plant Pre. VII Heterotypic synonym IIIA , App.
VII Holomorph VII Holotype 9. VII Homonym VII Homotypic synonym VII Hybrid formula H. VII Illegitimate name 6. VII Illustration with analysis VII Indelible autograph VII Indirect reference VII Informal usage App. VII Isonym App. VII Isosyntype 9. VII Isotype 9. VII Later homonym VII Lectotype 9. VII Legitimate name 6. VII Misplaced term App. VII Monotypic genus VII Morphotaxon 1.
VII Name 6. VII Name below rank of genus VII New combination App. VII New name App. VII Nomen conservandum App.
VII Nomen novum 7. VII Nomen nudum App. VII Nomen rejiciendum VII Nomenclatural synonym VII Nomenclatural type 7. VII Non-fossil plant Pre. VII Non-valid publication VII Nothomorph H. VII Nothospecies 3. VII Nothotaxon H. VII Objective synonym VII Opus utique oppressum VI , App. VII Original material 9. VII Original spelling VII Orthographical variant VII Page reference VII Paratype 9.
VII Plant Pre. VII Position App. VII Priority App. VII Protologue 8A. VII Provisional name VII Pseudocompound 60G. VII Rejected name VII Replaced synonym App. VII Replacement name App. VII Sanctioned name 7. VII Special form App. VII Specimen 8. VII Status App. VII Subdivision of family 4. VII Subdivision of genus 4. VII Subjective synonym VII Superfluous name VII Synonym App.
VII Syntype 9. VII Tautonym VII Taxon 1 , App. VII Taxonomic synonym VII Teleomorph VII Type 7. VII Valid publication 6. VII Voted example App. VII - or diagnosis, ascription VII - phrase VII - accompanying description 36A - definition VII - indelible autograph VII - avoidance 23A. VII - fungal name, derived from associated organism
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